To understand the environmental movement in America (the United States), one must understand certain aspects of the history of the country and the history of the world. The environmental movement embodies, and is the outgrowth of a complex mixture of social, political and economic issues. Many people believe that the environmental movement dates back to the 1970s with the passage of the National Environmental Policy Act (signed into law by then President Richard M. Nixon) and the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency. However, the root causes that drove the environmental movement date back to the industrial revolution, and were shaped by key national events that linger in the nation’s psyche.
The Industrial Revolution
Prior to the industrial revolution, products and materials that were required to sustain human life were produced on a very small scale, at a “cottage scale” by individuals and families. With the invention of the steam engine, massive production of iron, and later steel, came the production of electricity. During the industrial revolution, production of key industrial chemicals, such as sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, sodium carbonate and potash (potassium carbonate) were being generated on a more massive scale. Commercial textile production also came about in the industrial revolution. (Stamper). The first commercial textile mills were powered by steam engines.
These inventions and discoveries were generally considered to benefit mankind and improve the “quality of life”. However the production of chemicals, iron/steel and electricity came with the creation of waste products. Until the discovery and production of oil by Edwin Drake in Pennsylvania (on August 27th, 1859), the energy source for the industrial revolution was coal. With the burning of coal came pollution from the products of combustion (soot, carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide). The ash that resulted from the combustion of coal was another major waste product generated for the first time on a large scale.
For the production of iron and steel, iron ore and coal were mined and shipped to mills in Pennsylvania. In the 1800s this was prior the creation of an intricate system of railways and highways, so the conveyance in many cases occurred by man-made canals. Shipment of materials and goods by waterway was and is the most energy efficient method of transport.
In the 1800s and most of the 1900s waste materials from industry were not regulated. There is evidence that the industry was aware of the potential hazards posed by waste products and attempted to protect the public from exposure to these waste materials. However, the general philosophy of the period was that clean air and clean water were limitless resources, and could not be exhausted by activities of the human population.
With many factories being locally owned and operated, it was in the interest of the owner to provide for a relatively pollution free environment at the factory, since to do otherwise would endanger the health of his/her employees and family.
Social Causes Created by the Industrial Revolution
While the factories and production facilities built during the industrial revolution employed many people, and brought about a centuries-long migration of people from farms to towns and cities, they also created man-made air and water pollution on a scale never-before-seen. The population growth in the cities also created requirements for a clean drinking water supply, sewage treatment, and a safe method of solid waste disposal.
“Mother” Jones (born Mary Harris Jones in County Cork, Ireland) is considered by many to be a leader in the labor rights movement in the United States. But she was in fact the leader of many social causes that pitted the interests of the general public against those of wealthy industrial capitalists. She was a recognized community organizer speaking out forcefully against child labor, workers rights, and organizing labor to help gain a better “footing” for negotiating with mine owners or management. This work was generally seen as counter to the ideals of capitalism.
There is a very strong parallel between the environmental movement and the labor movement, in that they both confronted capitalistic ideals with a public need that forced the capitalistic system to act.
National Events That Shaped The Environmental Movement
In many cases, environmental regulation of industry occurs when there is an incident that gains national prominence, which is not addressed by existing law. These incidents tend to become the cornerstones of new environmental laws and regulations for the country. The following discussion presents a series of incidents or issues that demonstrate the effect that the environmental movement has had on governmental policy, which has affected the daily lives of most U.S. citizens.
Love Canal - Love Canal (near Niagara Falls, New York) was originally a property that was owned by William Love in the 1890s. Mr. Love began the construction of a canal initially for the purpose of producing hydroelectricity, but later intended it for conveying cargo and materials around Niagara Falls. The canal was never completed; only about one mile was excavated and was about 15 feet wide and 10 feet deep. In the 1920s the city of Niagara Falls obtained the property, and began to use the excavation as a landfill for chemicals. In 1942, Hooker Chemical and Plastics Corporation acquired the site and continued to use the land for chemical waste disposal (as a landfill). The site was filled to capacity in 1952, and the chemical company capped the landfill with 4 feet of clay. The chemicals were contained in a clay lined and clay capped landfill, that would have been adequate by perhaps even today’s standards. However, the chemical company was forced to sell the land to the City of Niagara Falls, shortly after closing the landfill. The company placed warnings in the sales agreement, forcing the city to acknowledge the fact that the site was a chemical dump site, and take full responsibility for any future liability. In 1957, the site was developed with the construction of a school, and subsequently with residential housing. In the process of constructing the school and laying the utilities to serve the community, the clay lining and cap of the landfill was breached many times. (Stamper).
In 1978, a local resident (Lois Gibbs) began to investigate the history of the property and discovered that the community was built on top of more than 20,000 tons of chemical waste. The local home owners association conducted a survey of children in the community born between 1974 and 1978 and found that 56% had a birth defect. After lengthy legal battles, the school was demolished and more than 800 family residences were purchased by the Federal government. The link between the communities health issues and exposure to the chemicals placed in the landfill is still a matter of some controversy.
This incident was one of the motivating factors that caused the U.S. Congress to the pass the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), also known as “Superfund”. Then President Jimmy Carter, signed the Act into law on August 7, 1978.
Times Beach - Times Beach, Missouri is located approximately 17 miles southwest of St. Louis, Missouri. The community is located along the banks of the Meramec River. In the 1970s the town was sparsely populated and lacked adequate funds to pave some 23 miles of public roads in the community. So to suppress dust on the unpaved roads the town hired waste hauler Russell Bliss to spay the roads with oil. Unfortunately, Mr. Bliss also had a contract with a pharmaceutical and chemical company (Northeastern Pharmaceutical and Chemical Company) that produced hexachloraphene, to dispose of their waste by product stream that was known to have high concentrations of dioxin (one of the most toxic substances known to man). Mr. Bliss sprayed the roads with a mixture of used engine lubricating oil and waste from the chemical company from 1972 to 1976. Some local horse stables in the area also hired Mr. Bliss to spray some of their riding arena areas for dust suppression. In March of 1971, Mr. Bliss sprayed a horse-riding arena that subsequently experienced the deaths of 62 horses. An investigation by the stable owner and horse owners led to the discovery of similar problems at other stables served by Mr. Bliss. A subsequent investigation by the Center For Disease Control, showed the concentration of dioxin in the soil sprayed by Mr. Bliss to be 100 times the concentration known to be hazardous to human health.
In early December of 1982, the town was flooded by an overflow of the Meramac River. A subsequent investigation by the Environmental Protection Agency showed that the dioxin contaminated soil was evident through out the community. This caused a general panic in the population, and a public outcry that resulted in EPA buying the town residents out for $32 million, in February of 1983. The town was subsequently quarantined.
The recently passed Superfund bill, was used to incinerate 265,000 tons of soil from the Times Beach area and surrounding communities.
Acid Rain - Acid rain is a phenomenon that occurs in the northeast United States as a result of wide spread burning of coal for electric power production in the mid-west and southeast United States. The coal can contain significant amounts of sulfur. Upon combustion the sulfur changes to sulfur dioxide (Stamper). The exhaust stacks carry the sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere where, the prevailing winds carry the pollution to the northeastern states. There, the sulfur dioxide combines with water in the atmosphere to form sulfurous acid. When rainfall brings the mixture back to the earth’s surface, the rainwater runoff carries the acid into lakes. The resulting acidity compromises the viability of aquatic life in the lakes. The situation has been partially resolved by the use of low sulfur coal, and other low sulfur fuels. Air pollution control technology has also been applied in some cases to prevent the release of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere.
Unleaded Gasoline - In 1921 researchers at General Motors discovered that adding lead to gasoline in the form of tetra ethyl lead, boosted the octane rating of gasoline and prevented spark ignition engines from “pinging”. The use of lead in gasoline continued unabated until emission regulations for automobiles in the U.S. market became so restrictive as to require the use of catalytic converters in automotive exhaust systems. Most 1975 model year automobiles were equipped with catalytic converter exhaust systems and required use of unleaded gasoline. (Leaded gasoline “poisoned” catalytic converters, rendering the pollution control device ineffective even after a short period of use.) Tetra ethyl lead is highly and acutely toxic. It is absorbed through the skin and like other heavy metals is known to cause damage to the nervous system. Tetra ethyl lead was phased out of service in the U.S. markets, and was ultimately banned in 1986. This program while controversial at times is now viewed as highly successful. Automobile exhaust emissions have been drastically reduced (more than 90% reductions in oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions), when compared to automobiles manufactured prior to 1972. The blood lead levels of people living in the United States declined by nearly half, during the period of 1976 to 1980 (Stamper). Part of this decline could be attributed to the ban on lead-based paint as well.
Today, every time someone fills the tank of their car with unleaded gasoline, they are reaping the benefits of the environmental movement in America.
Earth Day - The first Earth Day was celebrated on April 22, 1970, with a reported 20 million participants. The title of founder for Earth Day is reported to be Senator Gaylord Nelson (from Wisconsin). The idea for Earth Day was spawned in the 1960s, with growing public consciousness about the degradation of environmental quality in the U.S. (Environmental Protection Agency).
Earth Day could be said to represent the culmination of a shift in public consciousness, which was set in motion by the publication of a novel by Rachel Carson entitled Silent Spring, in September of 1962. The novel attacked the wide spread use of pesticides and identified the pesticide known as DDT, as the root cause for dwindling populations of certain birds, including the bald eagle. The companies that manufactured these pesticides, in retrospect, acted very poorly by putting out disinformation and attacking the author. With some 45 years of perspective, DDT banned (in 1972), and bald eagle populations on the rise, the author is much more than vindicated (Carson). The book and the author can be credited as founding and launching the modern environmental movement in America.
Today, Earth Day is celebrated around the world, with 175 countries participating. The United Nations celebrates Earth Day, on the vernal equinox (usually March 21st). However, most countries celebrate Earth Day on April 22nd. Earth Day is reported to be the most widely celebrated, secular holiday in the world. Earth Day is a celebration of life, and not just human life, but all life.
Who is Responsible for Pollution of the Air, Water and Land
One could argue that the companies that produce goods and services for the consuming public should be responsible for any pollution caused by the manufacture or production of those goods and services. Clearly from a practical viewpoint, the most cost effective way to treat polluted air, water, or solid waste is at the source. However, one could also argue that the consumer of the goods and services is ultimately responsible for the pollution. By placing a demand on the market place for goods and services, industry responds and creates the product, and in the process creates some amount of pollution. Since industry is a “for profit enterprise” the cost of pollution control is passed along to the consumer of the goods or services. Given this scenario, the consumer is ultimately the entity that is responsible for pollution. Except for some natural occurrences (such as volcano eruptions) the consumer is the ultimate source of environmental pollution.
The Current Regulatory Environment in the U.S.
Currently, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for regulating air, water, and solid waste pollutants from all emission sources in the U.S. This has been done by a rigorous study of a wide variety of industries and public works operations. As a result, virtually all aspects of private and public activity have environmental implications and require compliance with existing environmental laws and regulations.
The regulatory system works by requiring a construction permit for any significant new pollution source before the facility can begin to be built. In the permit review process restrictions are put into place, which establish the limits of how air, water, and solid waste pollution can be generated at the facility. The facility design and performance of any pollution control device is evaluated relative to the permitted pollution restrictions. Unfortunately, this process usually takes months and in some cases years. This is a source of significant frustration for the business sector.
The permitting process also allows public participation in the review process. Generally, before a permit is issued, a public notice has to be published in local newspapers, giving citizens the notice that a permit application has been submitted and is in the review process. While the intent of the public notice is good, many people use this aspect of the review process to obstruct the process, not because of emission or pollution levels, but simply because they do not want to see the new facility built.
While the Environmental Protection Agency has had many significant successes over its relatively brief history, it has become an agency that is mired in bureaucracy. When one views the regulatory process from the outside and looks at the conclusions, relative to the intent of the laws, at times there are major discrepancies.
The Impact of Global Free Trade
Since the early 1990s, a significant amount of the manufacturing required to support the U.S. economy has moved offshore, to China in pursuit of low-cost labor, and less governmental regulation. While China also has environmental laws, they are all voluntary. As a result, air and water pollution generated in the U.S. from the manufacturing sector has decreased, but global pollution is up significantly. China’s main source of electric power is coal fired generating plants.
The impact of this shift in manufacturing is significant in that it breaks the paradigm set by U.S. environmental laws and the environmental movement, where the “polluter pays” for environmental impacts and environmental mitigation. By importing manufactured goods from China, pollution is occurring on a massive scale and no one (or perhaps everyone) is paying for the pollution implications.
The Issue of Global Warming
There is growing evidence that the world is undergoing a significant warming trend. While this might not be unprecedented in geologic times, it is unprecedented within the time frame of recorded human history.
If global warming is occurring, the implications are very significant. It will mean the massive relocation of human populations, the possible extinction of some species of plants and animals. With the population of the world at more than 6,600,000,000 people, we could be reaching the limit of the number of people that the planet can support. This would mean a population control. Such an event would place the world’s environmental condition as the single most important issue, ever.
Conclusions
While “Mother” Jones helped give us rights for miners and child labor laws, the environmental movement has given us rights to breath clean air, have safe water, and avoid exposure to hazardous materials in our daily lives. For some, this is a right to enjoy life. It also transcends the human population to protect the rights of animals. The movement supports the idea of bio-diversity and conservation.
The environmental movement was an outgrowth of the youth population of the 1960s in the U.S. Of all of the contributions (good and bad) this may stand as the single most important contribution that the 60s generation could have made.
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